See the dic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

See the dic - Essay Example is no new requirement with a harmful effect to the project is added; Time Management, which involves ensuring that the deadline of the project is met; Cost Management, which sees the project completed within the budget; Quality Management, which ensures the project does what it was intended to and is completed according to the requirements; Human Resource Management, which involves all processes for managing, developing and putting the team together; Communication Management, which determines the type of information needed and the medium of sending that information as well as how the performance of the project will be reported; Risk Management, which includes identification, controlling and management of risks associated with the project; and Procurement Management, which involves processes for acquisition of services and materials required for successful completion of the project. In summary, there are nine major knowledge areas of a project and each knowledge area covers an important part of the project. One knowledge area may cover various phases of groups of processes in the project. A project manager must therefore excel in all the nine knowledge areas even though some knowledge areas may be more pivotal than the others. Each area must however be executed with professionalism and care in order to have a successful project

Preamble of the US Constitution. Has the government accomplished the Essay

Preamble of the US Constitution. Has the government accomplished the goals established in the constitutions preamble - Essay Example Establish justice This goal can be illustrated by many examples, still the common feature they all have is a cruel fight against oppression of civilians and a great enthusiasm to protect human rights of the American nation (the African American civil rights movement of the 60s). Justice and the fight against discrimination have always existed nearby in America. When in the end of 60s the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Sen. Robert F. Kennedy were assassinated, the concept of â€Å"justice† was undermined. Nevertheless, by putting great efforts in the fight against racial or gender oppression, American nation gained the right to live in the just country with no oppression or persecution. Ensure domestic tranquility An example illustrating the American’s government to ensure domestic tranquility can be shown by the 1968 Richard Nixon's political campaign when he underlined the importance of fight against crime and for law and order and the establishment of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA). Another example was chosen from the Cold War period, when the nation was intimidated by the presence of the â€Å"bomb†. During that period the Government could not manage a shift of families’ transformation to â€Å"nuclear families† and thus the goal of tranquility was not fulfilled to the fullest extent, while it was easier to set new social standards for civilians’ development (e.g. expressive sexuality among women). Secure blessings of liberty Liberty infringement by Communism was confronted in America in terms of McCarthyism. Nevertheless, it was not real protection of human rights and liberties, but a false and artificial creation of democratic soci alism. These attempts to infringe American nation were hampered by Murrow’s criticism broadcasted in 1954 in â€Å"A Report on Sen. Joseph R. McCarthy†. Therefore, the journalist debated over inconsistencies of MacCarthy’s speech and his actions that endanger real democracy in America. Another example of the State’s reached goal of â€Å"Secure Blessing of Liberty† can be illustrated by events taking place in America in 1964 when the Freedom Vote, SNCC sent volunteers into Mississippi to promote more freedoms during voting. In the result, three black workers were lynched. Nevertheless, attempts of fighters for the real democracy resulted in the blacks’ participation in the political Democratic Party and ensured other ethnic minorities of America in their rights for freedom and liberties. To form a more perfect union The implementation of this goal can be illustrated by the increase of the civic responsibility. A unity of American nation was growing in the process of public demonstrations while opposing to the war in Vietnam, during protests against environmental pollution. Public participation in the social life of America flourished under the guidance of Martin Luther King. The highest expressivity that public participation reached was during the Million Man March in 1963 March in Washington. Nevertheless, these initiatives were not realized to the fullest extent. Though theoretical underpinnings of racial equality in America were well-developed, they were not completely realized in practice. Therefore, the governmental attempt to realize the goal of a more perfect union creation has not been completely embodied. Till nowadays the American government works at perfection of conditions for people in the name of the common perfect state. Conclusion The goals set in the Preamble of the US Constitution have been partially brought to life. The nation’s participation in the historical events of America has been always marked by a common goal to reach freedom, independence and a real protection o

Technological Applications within Human resource Essay Example for Free

Technological Applications within Human resource Essay Human resource department is moving from the traditional way of doing things that is remote and inefficient to a more modern way through computerization that comes with great benefits and surpasses the traditional methods. A computerized system can be termed as eHR which simply means the use of predictable, web and voice innovations to enhance firm’s dealings, organization and process performance. It is therefore prudent for the CEO of the company to embrace such a modern system for efficiency in the firm in order to enhance the human resource services, in order to reduce operational costs, to improve the relationship between the management and the entire staff, to meet customer demands and to offer quality services to its customers and the staff. Technological applications within HR department have various benefits that include the following: with computerized systems the human resource department can develop a viable information strategy that will lead to increase in accessing the relevant information. Another benefit is that of achieving consistent and streamlined processes. This leads to a good and organized system that ensures that the laid down procedures are harmonized to be applicable to all and without confusion. The other benefits come up through the acquisition of the right information for those who need it to make correct decisions thus avoiding risks and losses that come up from guesswork. Also with technological application the management has the opportunity to achieve and maintain a superior internal profile for human resource that leads to achieving the goals and objective of the organization as stipulated by the mission and the vision of the company. (Hal and Dianna, 2005) However, such technological innovations have their own drawbacks and therefore needing the CEO’s attention; such problems include lack of understanding of the system developed using advanced technologies. There is need for the organization to incur extra funds to manage the advancement and also train those working to be better and efficient in utilizing the new technology. Another problem comes up due to inadequate coding of information that is arrived at when there is poor setting of the structures used to code. The middle level managers and supervisors may also bring a problem by holding and maintaining information that may help both the workers and the company at large. This comes when the managers do not have easy access to the system and a lot of manual that holds them . Lack of clarity of responsibilities for getting information on how the system can be used can also cause a great harm thus needing responsibilities to be well specified to correct the problem Research has shown that there is need to come up with a good computerized system for efficiency in the HR department to ensure that there is ease of managing the human resource. Such systems will include: holding personal details about the individuals workers that will include skills, qualification, career history, leave and absence records. Another system will include the production of reports which summarize diverse aspects of this information. It will also hold particulars about employees’ jobs which include things like their job grades, job description, role classification and pay and their benefits. It will also be of value to the company if the CEO ensures that there is information on recruitment and training administration. The computerized system in the company should also be able to provide information by recording and analyzing absence, labour turnover and attendance that helps management to make decisions on individual workers. It should be able to do job evaluation of the workers. For reward management and human resource planning, it will need a sophisticated system that will be in a position to support strategic decision making. (James, 2002) Provision of linkages to the internet is also a part of computerized system which will ease the function of the management of the company and can be of help in instances where the companies do recruitments and other things through the internet. There will be pitfalls that will automatically come from computerization that will not be received well by the affected in general. This are for instance the need for all the personal details about individuals can be tricky to workers since the management can base it in making decisions about them that may be of negative impact. Those being retrenched for instance will be sorted according to the information on qualification academically rather than experience In the event where the accessibility of workers information is not well protected, it can find way to people who can use it against persons who are the bearers of the said information and it becomes very dangerous to the workers. The personal details that must be handled with privacy include: medical history and discipline, employees qualifications, absence, special skills and competence e. t. c must be kept very private. Some top managers may take advantage and misuse the available information to mistreat those that are vulnerable and result to even others deciding to leave the organization while others will be affected psychologically and lead to reduced labour turnover. Some workers inaccessibility and familiarity with technology will make them feel inferior and will not take into account their various responsibilities and needs thus affecting them in the way they perform their duties. (Hal and Dianna, 2005) Best plan for the CEO The CEO must adopt the modern computerized technology to be in a position to be efficient and more organized for the success of the company. The CEO must establish the current need and also the future needs of the business and also analyze everything that results from information system that will be designed. It will require the company to ensure that the systems developed will be well customized to better serve the company and the whole population at large and it can be in a position to hold all the information of workers and avoid information overload so as to be integrated and also give maximum output for the benefit of the company. There is a need to come up with a good statement of all the requirements to make the computerization a success. Taking into consideration the business requirements, the CEO must identify the best options to tackle the problem while at the same time being strategic to realize the business goals set by the company. The CEO must support it by giving financial support after evaluation and analysis and then go ahead to buy the needed facilities. (James, 2002) The system should be in a position to get direct input at source to be able to get the data that is vital for the basis of decision making. It should solve the problems that were experienced there before and help the line managers by giving them information in an easy understandable manner. The system designed must not only help deal with the management information system but should also handle the administrative processes well. The CEO must ensure that they acquire the best technical infrastructure to support the program well. They will include the following; Application Service Provider (ASP) It will help the administration to do its administrative role well through a proper. Smaller or medium sized organizations rely on ASP in outsourcing the burden of running the system. ASP will help the company very much since the number of workers is around 200 HR/corporate intranet It is an electronic system that is networked therefore enabling all the available information to be communicated to departments and the centers that require the information within the organization. The available information that can be relayed comprises HR policies’, links that can be of help to the management to interface with other workers directly with HR applications and make changes or enquiries that can give assistance when required. B2E portal The organization can utilize this system that can help the human resource department by providing it with a single intranet screen that can make the company to collect information on the workers and give the workers and the people ready access to it. Human resource information system It is very important for the CEO to have a human resource information system that helping managing the HR processes and include important data that include, payroll systems, reward and performance management, recruitment e. t. c (Hal and Dianna, 2005) Conclusion It has been proved globally that modern organizations can only succeed when they are equipped with modern computerized system that can help the management of human resource for the growth and success of firms. The CEO has no choice but embrace the modern way that is easily manageable and less costly in the long run. With a number that is between 180 to 200 workers ‘keeping the file system to store information for the whole population can be quite hectic and also expensive since it will require a good number of workers to work in the human resource department to serve the company and the workers. Information required from files takes a very long time to be accessed unlike in the computerized system that is fast and efficient and can be made to perform multi-tasks and handle I perfectly unlike the use of workers who can only give attention to only one chore at a time. The company will now be in a position to assist give crucial information for better management and also handle issues related to their payments and also administer pay reviews, job evaluation e. t. c for the success of the company. (James, 2002)

Mental Health Social Work

Mental Health Social Work This research paper is going to look at the social work profession and specifically deal with mental health social work. In researching on the subject, I will use books and articles to get secondary information and at the same time carry out an interview with two social workers that are involved with mental health patients and clients. One of the social workers has a bachelors degree in social work while the other one holds a masters degree in social work. Carrying out the interview will require posing a few questions which are listed below. What is the social work profession in general all about? What other or extra duties are social workers expected to perform? How many categories of social workers are there in the profession? What does a mental health worker specialize in? What is the connection between a mental health social worker and a substance abuse social worker? What are the services that one would expect to get when visiting a mental health social worker? Give me a short briefing of the nature of your work as a social worker? How is your work related to the outside and regular work environment? What are the challenges that most mental health workers face in their jobs? What requirements does one need to get into this profession? Are there any exceptions for entry-level jobs in small agencies or community work? Is there a specific amount of field experience required beforehand seeing as one gets to handle clients directly? What other qualifications does one need apart from the educational and professional ones? Are there any personal skills advantageous to this profession? Is there any advancement opportunities in the mental health social work profession and what are they? Essay Social work is a profession which is most suitable for individuals who have a strong urge and desire to help improve the lives of other people. Therefore, social workers are the professionals who help people in coping with their day to day lives and solving their personal, family and relationship problems. In additions, there is another group of social workers that helps the clients in dealing with disabilities and life threatening or fatal diseases as well as social problems such as drug abuse and unemployment. As a result, they also end up being involved in the conducting of research, advocating for improved services and involvement in the planning and/or policy development. Basically, most of the social workers concentrate in supplying their services to a particular population or in operating in a specific background. Social workers are generally involved in different areas of practice according to ones preference. These categories are mental health, elderly, education, political, medical or slums dwellers. If they have the right State mandated license, these workers are referred to as licensed clinical social workers in spite of whichever setting they are in. Mental health social workers, who are often paired up with the substance abuse social workers, are the ones who treat people affected with mental illness or substance abuse problems. The reason why mental and substance abuse social workers are paired up is because more often than not, substance abuse leads to addiction and most experts concur that addiction is a brain disease. The services offered by these social workers include individual and group therapy, crisis intervention, outreach, social rehabilitation and outreach programs. In addition, they help in planning for supportive services so as to make it easier for the clients when they leave the in-patient facilities to rejoin the community and also provide services to help the family members of their clients cope with the situation. Although most mental health workers are flexible to work in whichever setting that they are comfortable with, they usually spend most of their time in an office or a residential facility. Some of them work in outpatient facilities whereby the patients come for the treatment and medicine then leave while others work in inpatient facilities whereby the clients reside within the facility until they are well enough to go back home. In regard to the normal work environment, there are a few mental health workers who work in employee-assistance programs in which case they help people cope with job-related pressures or with personal problems that may affect the quality of their work production. Several other workers are involved in private practice where they get employed directly by a particular client. Workers may also travel locally to visit their clients, meet with service providers and attend meetings. Even though most of the mental social workers are greatly satisfied after offering their services, the job can sometimes be very challenging. Social work, and especially in the mental health specialty, does not have a lot of professionals. Due to this, there is a regular understaffing and build up of large case load in some of the agencies thus leading to too much pressure on the available workers. Full time social work requires one to work a standard 40-hour week but due to the nature of the job, one is at times obligated to work during the evenings and weekends meeting with clients, attending community meetings and handling emergencies. Moreover, in the working with some patients especially in the mental health institutions can prove to be challenging and at times impossible. This is especially when dealing with a chronically ill patient who is unwilling to co-operate and is difficult to handle and manage. In such a case, external help might be required to calm down such a patient and acts such as man-handling and injecting them with sedatives have to be executed so as to return things back to normality. (Golightley, 159) Just like any other profession, social workers also have minimum requirements so as to be permitted full entry into the occupation. Although some positions necessitate one to have an advanced degree, the most common minimum requirement is on average a bachelors degree in social work (BSW) which is sufficient for entry into the field. However there are a few exceptions whereby a major in psychology, sociology or related fields can qualify one for some entry-level jobs in small community agencies. On the other hand, a masters degree in social work (MSW) is characteristically vital for one to get positions in both the health and teaching fields as well as in clinical work. Furthermore, for teaching position in colleges or universities, one would need a doctorate in social work (DSW or PhD). A certified bachelors degree program requires a minimum of 400 hours of supervised field experience while a masters degree program includes a minimum of 900 hours of supervised field instruction. Thi s prepares the graduates for employment in their chosen field of specialty and helps them continue developing the skills required to execute clinical assessments, handle and supervise large case loads as well as explore new ways of using social services that are helpful to the clients. In addition to the educational qualifications, all states have licensing, certification or registration requirements regarding the use of professional titles. Most of the states call for 2 years of supervised clinical experience for any social worker to be given a license. However, one does not only need professional and educational qualifications to successfully practice a socially and emotionally challenging career of mental health social work. One also needs to have certain personal skills and traits. First and foremost, a mental health social worker should be objective and at the same time sensitive to other people and the problems they are dealing with. It is also helpful to both the social worker and the client to possess calm temperament, quiet disposition and be very patient. A social worker should also be emotionally mature, be able to manage responsibilities and to maintain good working relations with both clients and coworkers. In terms of advancement, a mental health work er can progress to become a supervisor of other workers, a program manager or an executive director of a mental health institution. In the case where one has reached a retiring age or is unable to work in a health institution, there are other career options such as teaching, consulting, researching or going into private practice. In conclusion, despite the social work profession and most especially the area of mental health not being as popular as other careers such as medicine or law, it is just as important in the community as the others. Mental health social workers contribute greatly to the community in undertaking a task that most people do not have the heart, disposition or courage to do. If more people were to delve into the profession, the community and the families dealing with mental illnesses would benefit significantly. NAME : Kerril Sommerville. LOCATION : Monmouth Medical Center, Long Branch, New Jersey. PHONE : +1 800 732-922-7300 EMAIL : [emailprotected]

Organ Donation :: essays research papers

On April 16, 1996, my grandfather passed away of cancer. He had been ill since November of 1995, and he needed a kidney transplant. Unfortunately, he never received one, resulting in the cause of his death. Each day about 70 people receive an organ transplant. However, 16 people die each day waiting for transplants that cannot take place because of the shortage of donated organs, according to organdonor.gov. In New York alone, only 350 people are organ donors where 7,000 New Yorkers are currently awaiting organ transplants. One organ donor can save up to 8 lives by donating their heart, lungs, liver, kidney, pancreas, and intestines. Anyone can become an organ donor, and everyone should consider it. According to hjd.org, organs and tissues are distributed through federally or state authorized regional organ and tissue banks. Your decision to become an organ donor will not interfere with the health care you receive. Saving a patient’s life is the health care provider’s first priority, and it does not cost your family anything. According to organdonation.com, family consent is required for organ donation. Referring to an article titled, â€Å"The Gift of Organ Donation,† written by Dr. Dan Fischer about organ donation, organ donation is a lifesaving gift to a person who needs a healthy organ. It is an opportunity for you to give life to another human being after you have passed away. Organ donors are desperately needed in this country, and everyone should consider themselves a potential donor. According to a statistic on organdonors.html, tens of thousands of people wait each year for transplants, and between 10-20% of them die for lack of suitable organs. Death is a sad and final affair, especially through accidental or terminal illness.

Cancer :: essays research papers fc

Cancer INTRODUCTION   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the American society, cancer is the disease most feared by the majority of people within the U.S. Cancer has been known and described throughout history.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the early 1990s nearly 6 million cancer cases and more than 4 million deaths have been reported worldwide, every year. The most fatal cancer in the world is lung cancer, which has grown drastically since the spread of cigarette smoking in growing countries. Stomach cancer is the second leading form of cancer in men, after lung cancer. Another on the increase, for women, is breast cancer, particularly in China and Japan. The fourth on the list is colon and rectum cancer, which occurs mostly in older people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the United States more than one-fifth of the deaths in the early '90s was caused by cancer, only the cardiovascular diseases accounted at a higher percentage. In 1993 the American Cancer Society predicted that about 33% of Americans will eventually get cancer. In the United States skin cancer is the most dominating in both men and women, followed by prostate cancer in men and breast cancer in women. Yet lung cancer causes the most deaths in men and women. Leukemia, or cancer of the blood, is the most common type in children. An increasing incidence has been clearly observable over the past few decades, due in part to improved cancer screening programs, and also to the increasing number of older persons in the population, and also to the large number of tabacco smokers--particularly in women. Some researchers have estimated that if Americans stopped smoking, lung cancer deaths could virtually be eliminated within 20 years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The U.S. government and private organizations spent about $1.2 billion annual for cancer research. With the development of new drugs and treatments, the number of deaths among cancer patients under 30 years of age is decreasing, even though the number of deaths from cancer is growing overall. TYPES OF CANCER   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1.Cancer is the common term used to designate the mosst aggressive and usually fatal forms of a larger class of the diseases known as neoplasms. A neoplasm is described as being relatively autonomous because it does not fully obey the biological mechanisms that govern the growth and the metabolism of individual cells and the overall cell interactions of the living organism. Some neoplasms grow more rapidly than the tissues from which they arise, others grow at a normal pace but because of the other factors eventually become recognizable as an abnormal growth and not normal tissue. The changes seen in neoplasm are heritable in that these characteristics are passed on from each cell to ots

Chapter 5 and 6 Apush Outline

Chapter 5 * Thirteen original colonies is misleading because Britain ruled thirty-two colonies in North America by 1775 * Included Canada, the Floridas, and various Caribbean islands * Only thirteen unfurled the standard of rebellion A few of the nonrebels (Canada, Jamaica, etc) were larger, wealthier, or more populous than some of the revolting thirteen * Some British colonies had strike for their independence while others did not/; due to the distinctive social, economic, and political structures of the thirteen Atlantic seaboard colonies and also in the halting gradual appearance in the American way of life Conquest by the Cradle * Among distinguishing characteristics of rebellious settlements: lusty population growth * Colonists doubled their numbers every 25 years Europeans * Dr.Samuel Johnson â€Å"Multiplying like rattlesnakes† * Also were youthful average age was 16 * In 1775, the most populous colonies were Virginia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Ma ryland. * Only four communities could be called cities: first Philadelphia (including suburbs), New York, Boston, Charleston * 90% of the people lived in rural areas A Mingling of the Races * Colonial America had been a melting pot since the outset: population was English in stock and language, but mottled with numerous foreign groups * Germans * 1775: about 6% of total population Fleeing religious persecution, economic oppression, and ravages of war * Mostly settled in Pennsylvania in the early 1700s * Added to religious diversity: belonged to different Protestant sects, primarily Lutheran * Erroneously known as the Pennsylvania Dutch and made up 1/3 of colony’s population * Moved into Penn’s backcountry * Their splendid stone barns give evidence of industry and prosperity * Clung to their German culture and language * Scots-Irish * 7% of population in 1775 * Not Irish at all but turbulent Scots Lowlanders Had been transported over a period of time to Northern Ireland did not prosper * Irish Catholics hated Scottish Presbyterian and resented the intrusion * Economic life of Scots-Irish was hampered, especially when English government put burdensome restrictions on their production of woolens and linens * Early 1700s: tens of thousands of Scots- Irish came to America, mostly to tolerant and deep-soiled Pennsylvania * Best land was already taken by Germans and Quakers pushed out into the frontier * Illegally but defiantly squatted on unoccupied lands and quarreled with Indian and white owners * Superior frontiersmen with ready violence for Indians * Idea that they kept â€Å"Sabbath and all else they could get their hands on† * They hated British government (or apparently any other government) who had once uprooted and still lorded over them * Led the armed march of the Paxton Boys on Philadelphia, protesting the Quaker’s oligarchy’s lenient policy towards Indians * Also led Regulator movement in North Carolina against eastern domination of the colony’s affairs * Many of these hotheads (ex Andrew Jackson) eventually joined the American revolutionists * 5% of multicolored colonial population included French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swish, and Scots Highlanders felt little loyalty to British crown * Largest non-English group Africans Thirteen colonies had most mixed population * South: 90% of slaves * New England: Puritans least ethnic diversity * Middle Colonies (especially Penn’s Woods): received most of later white immigrants and had astonishing variety * This variety laid the foundations for the diverse multicultural American identity * Whites mixed with other whites, as were Africans from slave trade African Americans * Polyglot Native American communities emerged blurred tribal identity boundaries The Structure of Colonial Society * Contrasted to Europe—American was a land of equality and opportunity except for the slaves * No titled nobility or pauperized un derclass Most white Americans and some free blacks were small farmers * Cities: small class of skilled artisans, shopkeepers, tradespeople, and unskilled causal laborers * Most astonishing: could go from rags to riches for an ambitious colonist, rare in England * Contrast with 17th century America: colonial society on the eve of Revolution began to show signs of stratification/ barriers to mobility raised worries about â€Å"Europeanization† of America * Gods of war contributed to these developments * Armed conflicts of the 1690s and early 1700s enriched a number of merchant princes in the New England and middle colonies laid foundations of their fortunes with profits made as military suppliers made money imported fancy clothes and ate with English china, etc * Prominent people came to be seated in churches/ schools according to rank * War plague created class of widows and orphans became dependent on charity * Philadelphia and NY built almshouses However, still smaller numbe r of poor in America than England (1/3 of population in E) * In New England countryside descendent of original settlers faced more problems than descendents supply of unclaimed soil grew smaller and families larger existing landholdings were repeatedly subdivided * Average farm size drastically shrank and younger kids were forced to work as wage laborers or seek virgin tracts of land beyond Alleghenies * South: power of great planters were bolstered by disproportionate ownership of slaves * Riches created by growing slave population in 18th century were not evenly distributed among whites- wealth was concentrated in largest slave owners widened gap between rich and poor whites who would portably become tenant farmers * In all the colonies the ranks of the lower classes were further swelled by the continuing stream of indentured servants, many of whom were eventually very successful * Many paupers and convicts were deported to the Americas, many because of the strict penal code in En gland with over 200 capital crimes—not fans of king * Lowest: blacks they could not even dream of climbing the social ladder * People eared black rebellion SC legislature even tried to restrict/ halt their importation * To reserve cheap labor, especially in sugar of West Indies, British authorities vetoed these attempts colonists thought this veto was callous even though NE slave traders also very much benefited from this * Cruel complexity of issue (think Thomas Jefferson) Clerics, Physicians, and Jurists * Christian ministry was most honored profession * Most physicians were poorly trained and not highly esteemed * The first medical school came in 1765 * Epidemics were a constant nightmare, especially smallpox a crude form of inoculation was introduced in 1721 despite objections by many physicians and clergy * Powdered dried toad was a favorite prescription for smallpox. Diphtheria was also a killer, especially of young people. Grim reminder of one epidemic and the taking o f their morality may have helped to prepare colonists in their hearts and minds for the religious revival that was soon to sweep them up * At first the law profession was not favorably regarded lawyers were regarded as noisy or troublemakers, drunkards or brothel owners; sometimes parties defended themselves in court Workaday America * Agriculture was the leading industryinvolved about 90% of the people * Tobacco continued to be staple crop for Maryland and VA (wheat also spread through Chesapeake in tobacco ruined soil regions) * Fertile middle (bread) colonies with lots of grain NY was exporting a lot of flour a year†¦ A LOT * This was really good, and America was overall the higher of standards of living lived by the majority of others in history up to that time * Fishing, though below agriculture, was rewarding and pursued in all American colonies but major industry in New England stimulated shipbuilding and served as a nursery for the seamen * Bustling commerce, coastwise and overseas enriched all the colonies especially New England, NY, and Pennsylvania * Commercial ventures and land speculation replaced any get-rich-quick schemes and became the surest avenues to speedy wealth * Yankee seamen were famous not only as skilled mariners but also as ightfisted traders * Triangular trade was infamously profitable but small in relation to total colonial commerce * Manufacturing in the colonies was only secondary importance but included rum, beaver hats, iron, household manufacturing (spinning and weaving) * Strong-back laborers and skilled craftspeople were scarce and highly prized * Lumbering was the most important single manufacturing activity first chiefly in New England, but then spread elsewhere in the colonies * Colonial naval stores (tar, pitch, rosin, turpentine) were highly valued because British wanted to fain and retain a mastery of the seas * London offered generous bounties to stimulate production of these items * Towering trees were needed fo r royal masts there were restriction placed on them this shackle on free enterprise caused considerable bitterness * By the 18th century Americans held an important flank of the thriving Atlantic economy, but strains appeared in this network as early as the 1730s * Fast breeding Americans demanded more and more British products-yet the slow growing British population early reached the saturation point for absorbing imports from America * This trade imbalance prompted the Americans to sell their goods to foreign, non-British markets to get money to pay for British products * By the eve of the Revolution, the bulk of Chesapeake tobacco was in France and other European countries, btw it passed through British re-exporters * Most important was trade with West Indies, especially in French islands West Indian purchases of North American timber and foodstuffs provided cash for colonists to purchase British goods * Due to pressure from British West Indian planters, Parliament passed the Mol asses Act: aim was to stop trade with French West Indies * American merchants respond by bribing, smuggling, etc Americans revolting, not submitting Horsepower and Sailpower All large but sparsely populated pioneer communities were cursed with oppressive problems of transportation, including America with its scarceness of money and worker * Snot until 1700s did roads connect major cities, but they were still deficient * Roads were poor (dust in summer and mud in winter) and stagecoach travelers faced problems like rickety bridges and runaway horses * Bad roads heavy reliance on waterways populations clustered along banks or rivers slow and undependable but cheap and pleasant * Taverns sprang up along routes of travel as well as in cities all social classes mingled tavern was another cradle of democracy * Also important in crystallizing public opinion and hotbeds of agitation as Revolution continued * An intercolonial postal system was established by the mid-1700s Dominant Denominati ons Two â€Å"establish†- tax supported- churches in 1775: Anglican and Congregational * However, large part of population did not worship in any church, even in colonies that maintained established religion minority belonged to the churches * Church of England (Anglican) was official faith in Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and part of NY served as major prop of kingly authority * However, it clung to a faith that was less fierce and more worldly than religion of Puritanical New England shorter sermons, less scorned amusements, etc * The College of William and Mary was founded in 1693 to train a better class of clerics for the Anglican Church * Congregational Church had grown out of Puritan Church and was influential formally established in all New England colonies except independent-minded Rhode Island * Presbyterianism, close to Congregational, was never made official in any of the colonies * These two combined with rebellion during early rumblings against Brit ish crown * Anglican clergy supported king but were handicapped by not having a resident bishop, whose presence would have been convenient for the ordination of young ministers people had to travel to England to be ordained and many non- Anglicans opposed the idea of creating an American bishopric because it would tighten royal reins * Religious toleration  had made tremendous strides in America. There were fewer Catholics in America; hence anti-Catholic laws were less severe and less strictly enforced. In general, people could worship or not worship as they pleased. The Great Awakening * In all colonial churches, religion was less fervid in early 18th century than century before, when colonies were first planted * Puritan churches especially sagged under two burdens: elaborate theological doctrines and their compromising efforts to liberalize membership requirements * Liberal ideas began to challenge old time religion Puritan predestination was questioned a lot, especially bit Ar minians, who preached that free will determined eternal fate, not divine decree a few churches grudgingly said that spiritual conversion was not necessary for church membership (they had felt pressured) * These twin trends toward clerical intellectualism and lay liberalism sucked spiritual vitality from many denominations set stage for rousing religious revival, the Great Awakening * Great Awakening: first started in Northampton, Massachusetts by Jonathon Edwards, an intellectual pastor he proclaimed that through faith in God,  not  through doing good works, could one attain eternal salvation.He had an alive-style of preaching â€Å"Sinners in Hands of†¦Ã¢â‚¬  * George Whitefield  gave America a different kind of evangelical type of preaching (had an incredible voice) * His message even had Edwards to tears and Franklin to empty pockets countless sinners expressed conversion * The  old lights, orthodox clergymen, were skeptical of the new ways (emotional and theatrica l) of preaching * New light ministers defended the Awakening for its role in revitalizing American religion * Congregationalists and Presbyterians were split over this issue * Many believers in the religious conversion went to the Baptists and other sects more prepared for emotion in religion * Awakening had many lasting effects had an emphasis on direct, emotive spirituality and seriously undermined the older clergy, whose authority had been derived from their education and erudition * The schisms it set off in many denominations greatly increased the numbers and competitiveness of American churches encouraged a wave of missionary work among Indians and even black slaves, many of whom also attended the mass open-air revival led to founding of â€Å"new light† centers of higher learning (Princeton, Dartmouth, Rutgers, Brown) * Most significant: Great Awakening was the first spontaneous mass movement of the American people broke down sectional boundaries/ denominational liens; contributed to growing sense that Americans were a single people, united by common history and shared experience Schools and Colleges * English idea was that education was a blessing reserved for the aristocratic few, not for unwashed many, leadership not citizenship, males only * Colonists slowly and painfully broke out of these ancient restrictions * Puritan New England was more interested in education than any other section.Dominated by the Congregational Church, it stressed the need for Bible reading by the individual worshiper * Primary goal of clergy good Christians, not good citizens * Education for boys flourished almost from the outset in News England * This densely populated region had impressive number of graduates from English universities, especially Cambridge, the intellectual center of England’s Puritanism * New England also established primary and secondary schools * Adequate elementary schools also put information in the reluctant â€Å"scholars† of m iddle and southern colonies (some tax supported and others privately operated) * South: mostly wealthy families with private tutors General atmosphere of colonial schools and colleges were grim and gloomy most emphasis was placed on religion and classical language of Latin and Greek, not experiments, reason, or independent thinking * There was severe discipline, even for children, and even indentured-servant teachers could be whipped for failures as workers * College education was regarded (at least in new England) extremely important because Churches would wither if new crops of ministers were not trained to lead spiritual flocks * Many wealthy families, especially in South, sent their boys abroad to British institutions * For convenience and economy, 9 local colleges were established during the colonial era small student enrollments (200 boys at most), poor education, curriculum filled with theology and dead languages * By 1750: distinct trend towards more modern subjects * Signif icant contribution made by Ben Franklin, who played a major role in the launching of UPenn, the first American college free from denominational control A Provincial Culture Colonial Americans were still in thrall to European tastes, especially British * The simplicity of pioneering life had not yet bred many patrons of arts * John Trumbull: aspiring painter of Connecticut who was discouraged by his father’s remark that Connecticut was not Athens; Trumbull, like most others, was forced to travel to London to pursue his ambitions * Charles Wilson Peale (GW portraits), Benjamin West, John Singleton Copley became famous painters but also had to go to England to complete their training only aboard could they find subjects who had leisure to sit for their portraits and had the money to handsomely pay * These people were Loyalists and were buried in London (sometimes) * Architecture was imported from old World and modified for peculiar climatic and religious conditions of the New Wo rld * Log cabin Sweden The red-bricked Georgian style was introduced in 1720 Williamsburg, Virginia * Colonial literature was generally undistinguished, like art, for many of the same reasons * Phyllis Wheatley: black poet, taken from slave to England, poetry book similar to Pope * BFrank: autobiography, but mostly Poor Richard’s Almanac- shaped America; only book that beat it was the Bible * Science was also making progress: not as many superstitions * BFrank: only first rank scientist produced in the American colonies * Spectacular but dangerous experiments: kite proved lightning was a form of electricity * Bifocals, Franklin stove, lighting rod condemned by some clergymen â€Å"presuming God† Pioneer Presses Americans were generally too poor to buy books and too busy to read them * There were some private libraries, especially with Byrd family and the clergy * BFrank established the first privately supported circulating library in America in Philadelphia * By 1776 t here were about 50 public libraries and collections supported by subscription * Hand operated printing presses: brought out pamphlets, journals, leaflets, etc * 40 colonial newspapers by the time of the Revolution * They were mostly made of somber essays with news that was delayed to be printed but colonists were extremely interested to hear about * Newspapers were powerful source of airing colonial grievances and rallying opposition to British control * A celebrated legal case in 1734-1735 involved  John Peter Zenger, a newspaper printer. He was charged with printing things that assailed the corrupt royal governor of New York (libel).Despite the ambitions of the royal chief justice, the jury voted him not guilty to the surprise of the judge and many people. This paved the way for freedom of the press. The Great Game of Politics * The thirteen colonial governments took a variety of forms * Eight had royal governors appointed by the king * Three- Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delawar e- were under proprietors who themselves chose the governors * Two- Connecticut and Rhode Island- elected their own governors under self-governing characters * Nearly every colony used a two house legislative body. The upper house, or council, was appointed by the crown in the royal colonies and the proprietor in the proprietary colonies.It was chosen by voters in the self-governing colonies * The lower house, as the popular branch, was elected by the people- those who owned enough property to be qualified as voters * Backcountry was underrepresented and they hated the colonial cliques almost as much as kingly authority * Legislatress (direct representation): voted such taxes as they deemed necessary for the expenses of the colonial government * This self-taxation through representation was a precious privilege Americans prized above all else * Governors appointed by king were generally bale men, sometimes outstanding figures, but some were incompetent/ corrupt and just badly in nee d of jobs * Worst of this group was impoverished Lord Cornbury: made governor of New York and New Jersey in 1702. He was a drunkard, a spendthrift, and a bad person. Even the best appointees had troubles with colonial legislatures because the royal governor embodied a bothersome transatlantic authority 3000 miles away * Ways colonial assemblies asserted their authority and independence: employed the trick of withholding governor’s salary until he yielded to their wishes (since he was normally in need of money) * The London government was guilty of poor administration (left colonial governor to the mercy of the legislature) * They sh0oudl have arranged for his independent pay instead of from these bickering sources bickering is persistent spirit of revolt * Local level administration also varied * County government remained the rule in South New England: town meeting government predominated- direct democracy because of open discussion/ open voting * Religious/ property qualifi cations required for voting/ even stiffer qualifications for office holding * Privileged upper-class wouldn’t grant right to everyone * ? adult white males, but gaining the property wasn’t that hard so there were a lot of opportunities to become voters * Not many eligible actually voted left it up to their â€Å"better† leaders (actually corrupt losers) * Middle colonies: modification of the two * 1775: not yet a true democracy, but much more democratic than anything in Europe/ Britain * There some democratic ideas planted seeds for later years Colonial Folkways Life in colonies was drab and tedious (labor was heavy and constant) * Americans had most bountiful diet, food was plentiful, but coarse and monotonous diet * Americans had/ ate more meat than anyone in the Old World * Obviously they didn’t have heat in Churches, poorly heated homes with inefficient fireplaces, no running water, plumbing or bathtubs, not much garbage disposal * Candles/ whale-oil lamps used for illumination * Amusement * Pursued when time/ custom permitted * Militia periodically assembled for musters (with lots of flirting and enjoyment involved) * Several days of drilling- musters * North: winter sports * South: cards. Horse racing, cockfighting, and fox hunts * Non-puritanical south: dancing * GW could ride well and dance well * Lotteries were approved even by clergy * Stage plays- popular for south but frowned upon by Quakers/ Puritans * New England clergy saw plays as immoral; they preferred religious lectures * Holidays * Celebrated everywhere in the American colonies New England: frowned upon Christmas * Thanksgiving- widespread giving thanks to God * By mid-18th century, Britain’s several North American colonies revealed some striking similarities * Basically English in language and custom, Protestant in religion * Other people and faiths colonies gave some degree of ethic/ religious toleration * Lots of opportunities for social mobility * All possessed some measure of self-government (but not complete democracy) * Improving communication and transportation * Self- rule was most important similarity * All separated by entire ocean from Britain led to struggle to unite for independence Chapter 6 As the 17th was ending, contest began for mastery of North American continent involving 3 Old Worlds (Britain, France, and Spain) and involved Native Americans as well * 1688- 1763: 4 bitter wars in Europe (world wars) * Fought for control in Europe and New World and fought in both places * Americans could not stay out of it good thing because one of the wars (Seven Years’ War aka French and Indian War by America) set the stage for America’s independence France Finds a Foothold in Canada * Like England and Holland, France was a latecomer in New World real estate, basically for same reasons: had foreign wars in 1500s and domestic strife (clashes between Roman Catholics and Protestant Huguenots) * St. Bartholomewâ€℠¢s Day: lots of people killed * In 1598, the  Edict of Nantes  was issued by the crown of France.It granted limited religious freedom to French Protestants, and stopped religious wars between the Protestants and Catholics new century France became mightiest and most feared in Europe, led by brilliant leaders and vainglorious King Louis XIV * Reigned for less than 2 years surrounded by glittering court and mistresses * Also took deep interest in colonies * In  1608, France established  Quebec (by St. Lawrence River). The leading figure was  Samuel de Champlain,  an intrepid soldier and explorer whose energy and leadership earned him the title â€Å"Father of New France†. * Champlain entered into friendly relations with the nearby Huron Indians and joined them in battles against their foes (Iroquois of upper NY area) * Two fights with them and Iroquois were dead scared France earned permanent enmity with Iroquois * Stopped French from getting into Ohio Valley Ravage d French settlements/ served as British allies * The government of New France (Canada) was under direct control of the king after muchos companies had failed royal almost completely autocratic regime  did not elect any representative assemblies or have right to trial by jury like those in English colonies * Population in Catholic New France grew lethargically (Landowning French peasants didn’t want to move and Protestant Huguenots could not for religious reasons) * French government preferred Caribbean islands (sugar and rum) over cold wintery Canada New France Sets Out * New France’s one valuable resource: beaver fashion hats (warm and opulent) * French fur trappers: couriers de bois (runners of the woods) who ranged over woods/ waterways of North America for beaver * Also runners of risks * Two-fisted drinkers, free spenders, free livers and lovers * Named a lot (Baton Rouge, Des Moines, etc) * French voyageurs recruited Indians into fur business * Fur trade had dr awbacks Indians recruited got the white diseases and hated their alcohol * Slaughtering mass beavers violated some NA religious beliefs and destroyed some Indians’ way of life * French and Indian trappers traveled amazing distances almost extinguished beaver population, causing bad ecological damage * French Catholic missionaries, especially Jesuits, labored with much enthusiasm to convert the Indians to Christianity and to save them from the fur trappers * Some were killed by Indians for doing so * Some made converts, but also had vital roles as explorers and geographers * Others sought not souls nor fur but empire * Antoine Cadillac- founded Detroit in  1701  to thwart English settlers pushing into the Ohio Valley * Robert de La Salle- explored the Mississippi and Gulf basin, naming it Louisiana in honor of king; done to check Spanish penetration into the gulf * Dreamed of empire and brought colonizing ships, but ended up killed by mutiny * In order to ontinue their eff orts to block the Spanish on the Gulf of Mexico, the French planted several fortified posts in Mississippi and Louisiana; most important-  New Orleans  in  1718. * This outpost also rapped fur trade * Fertile Illinois had French forts established there and became France's garden empire of North America because much grain was produced there The Clash of Empires * The earliest battles among European power for control of North America, known to British colonists as  King William's War (1689-1697)  and  Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), pitted British colonists against the French couriers de bois with both sides recruiting any possible Indian allies. Primitive guerilla warfare: neither side thought America was so important to need a large detachments of troops * Most of the battles were between the British colonists, the French, and the French ally Spain. * Spain probed from its Florida base at SC settlements, and French Indian allies ravaged British colonial frontiers * British : failed with Quebec and Montreal but victories when temporarily seized Port Royal in Acadia (present day Nova Scotia) * The wars ended in  1713  with peace terms signed at  Utrecht proved how badly beaten; France and Spain were terribly beaten and Britain received French-populated Acadia and Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. The British also won limited trading rights in Spanish America later involved friction over smuggling War of Jenkins’ Ear broke out between British and Spanish in Caribbean Sea and Georgia with James Oglethorpe fought against Spanish foe to a standstill * This small scuffle merged with big War of Austrian Succession in Europe (King George’s War) * France allied with Spain * New Englanders invaded New France with British fleet and luck * The War of Jenkins's Ear started in  1739  between the British and Spaniards. This small battle became a war and became known as  King George’s War in America. It ended in  1748  with a treaty tha t handed Louisbourg back to France, enraging the victorious New Englanders, and France still clung to vast holdings in North America